Tag: alien civilizations

EP. 12: H.P. LOVECRAFT’S VISION OF AN EVIL PRE-HUMAN CIVILIZATION

On By AlessandraIn Ancient Civilizations, Books, Reading, Silurian Hypothesis

In a recent post, I discussed the Silurian Hypothesis, which is the possibility that our human civilization is not the first one on Earth. Sci-fi authors have explored this concept in their works for at least a century.

One of the first was Howard Phillips Lovecraft, the author of the Cthulhu Mythos. As early as 1917, he wrote the story Dagon, where the protagonist escapes the German U-boat that sank his merchant ship. However, the sailor soon finds himself on a strange island that “[…] by some unprecedented volcanic upheaval […] must have been thrown to the surface, exposing regions that for innumerable years had lain hidden […]”.

In the middle of the island is a disturbing artifact, an ancient monolith engraved with occult symbols and figures. This human-amphibian mixture fills the protagonist with an inexplicable terror, which only grows worse when a slithering, sucking monstrosity crawls up from the sea and over the monolith. The sight plunges the unlucky man into madness. As a result, he runs away on a “delirious journey” until he wakes up in a San Francisco hospital, where no one believes him, and he’s left alone with the knowledge of the Thing’s existence and what it implies. A Thing so ancient that its existence dwarfs any human concept of time.

Although Dagon is an excellent introduction to Lovecraft’s obsession with vast, inhuman worlds beyond the limit of our knowledge, some of his later works dive even deeper into the rabbit hole of an unbearably old and malign civilization that predates and will outlast humans and their limited, relatively trivial experiences.

In February 1931, he wrote the sci-fi-horror novella At the Mountains of Madness, later serialized in the early 1936 issues of Astounding Stories.

The story is about an American expedition to Antarctica by geologist William Dyer from the fictional Miskatonic University of Arkham. Lovecraft had long been fascinated with Antarctica, though in the 1930s, the continent was not fully explored. As a result, Lovecraft could set his story in a mountainous chain “higher than the Himalayas” (the so-called Mountains of Madness) without fear of contradiction.

The expedition begins promisingly but ends in tragedy and horror after a sub-expedition led by a colleague of Dyer, the biologist Lake, discovers the frozen remains of monstrous barrel-shaped creatures that cannot be reconciled with the known evolution of this planet. They seem half-animal and half-vegetable, with greater brain capacity and super-human sensitivity. Lake jokingly identifies the strange beings with the Elder Things or Old Ones of the Necronomicon, who are “supposed to have created all Earth life as jest or mistake.”

Fig.1: An Antarctic setting in the style of Nicholas Roerich, H.P. Lovecraft’s favorite painter. Image made by the author with Midjourney AI.

Soon, Lake’s sub-expedition loses radio contact with the main party, apparently because of bad weather. However, when Dyer takes a small group of men in some airplanes to find out whatever happened to Lake and company, they discover a devasted camp and no trace of the specimens of the Old Ones, but for a few damaged ones, which they presume must have been buried by Gedney, the one human they couldn’t identify among the corpses.

Fig.2: Lovecraft had a lifelong interest in Antarctic exploration. Image made by the author with Midjourtney AI.

Dyer and a graduate student, Danforth, investigate the mysterious tragedy further by scaling the immense plateau that makes “Everest out of the running.” To their amazement, they find an enormous stone city, fifty to one hundred miles in extent, likely dating to millions of years before any humans evolved on the planet. The subsequent exploration of some interiors leads Dyer and Danforth to conclude that the Old Ones built the city.

Fig.3: A shoggoth in the city of the Old Ones. Image made by the author with Microsoft Bing AI.

Also, by studying some drawings and carvings on the city walls, the two adventurers discover that the Elder Things came from outer space millions of years ago, establishing themselves in Antarctica and eventually spreading across the entire Earth. This is where the shoggoths – shapeless, fifteen-foot masses of gel-like substance which they controlled using hypnotic suggestion – first become important. Over time, these living robots developed a somewhat conscious brain and will, which led to the Old Ones having to deal with the shoggoths’ frequent rebellion attempts. The Old Ones faced more difficulties when other extraterrestrial races, such as the fungus-like creatures from Yuggoth and the Cthulhu spawn, arrived on Earth. The ensuing territorial wars pushed them back to their original settlement in Antarctica. Ultimately, their extinction became inevitable when they lost the ability to travel through space.

Shortly after, Dyer and Danforth discover the body of Gedney and a dog. They also stumble upon a group of Old Ones without their heads, suggesting they regained consciousness after thawing in Lake’s camp. Dyer observes that Gedney’s body was carefully protected to avoid further harm. From this, it can be inferred that the Old Ones were responsible for the destruction of Lake’s camp and took Gedney as a sample. However, the question remains: who killed the Old Ones?

At that point, Dyer and Danforth hear a disturbing piping sound. Afraid it could be some other Old Ones, they flee in terror, but not before they turn their flashlights upon a fast-approaching thing and find that it is “… a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self-luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and unforming as pustules of greenish light over the tunnel-filling front…”

But the two explorer’s trial is not yet over. As they return to camp, Danforth shrieks in horror: “Teke-li! Teke-li!” He has seen something even worse than the shoggoth who killed the Old Ones, something that unhinges his mind, although he refuses to tell Danforth what it is.

Although initially portrayed as scary creatures, the Old Ones are the main focus of the story “At the Mountains of Madness.” Eventually, they are overpowered by the shoggoths, who are described as “the things that even the scary things fear.” Near the end, the Old Ones stop being scary. This is a common theme in stories about civilizations that existed before our current one. For example, similar themes can be found in the novels A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller Jr (1959) and The Second Sleep by Robert Harris (2019). The Old Ones have a deep connection with humans, representing a perfect society that Lovecraft hopes humanity will someday achieve. However, they are much more advanced than humans in various ways, such as intelligence, perception, and artistic ability. As mentioned earlier, the Old Ones are responsible for creating all life on Earth, including humans. Nevertheless, they are destroyed by the shoggoths, initially created by the Old Ones as slaves. This illustrates Lovecraft’s belief in the inevitable rise and fall of civilizations.

Finally, At the Mountains of Madness introduces what later became a trope of sci-fi and fringe literature: most mythological “gods” were mere extraterrestrial beings, and their followers were mistaken about their true nature. The critical passage occurs in the middle of the novella when Dyer acknowledges that the Old Ones must have built the gigantic city in which he has been wandering:

They were the makers and the enslavers of Earth life, and above all doubt the originals of the fiendish elder myths which things like the Pnakotic Manuscripts and the Necronomicon affrightedly hint about.

EP. 8: WHAT WOULD BE A GREAT PLACE TO SEARCH FOR ET?

On By AlessandraIn Extrasolar Planets, S.E.T.I.

The Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure physicist Freeman Dyson proposed in 1960.

According to his paper published in Science magazine, a technologically advanced alien civilization would use increasing energy as it grew. As the most significant source of energy in any solar system is the parent star, sooner or later, the civilization would build orbiting solar panels to try to capture it. Such structures would take up more and more space until they eventually covered the entire star like a sphere.

In a 2008 interview with Slate, Dyson also credited the concept to writer Olaf Stapledon, who introduced it in his novel Star Maker in 1937.

Dyson’s hypothesis turned out to be hard to verify because a complete Dyson sphere, absorbing all of the light from the star, would be invisible to an exo-planet hunting telescope (such as NASA’s Kepler). Only half-completed spheres would have a chance to be discovered.

Unfortunately, a Dyson sphere is unlikely to remain under construction for long. The time it takes to make a Dyson sphere is relatively short. A 2013 paper by Stuart Armstrong and Anders Sandberg (“Eternity in six hours: Intergalactic spreading of intelligent life and sharpening the Fermi paradox”) estimates that disassembling Mercury to make a partial Dyson shell could be done in 31 years.

An alternative would be to look for waste heat in the infrared. After being absorbed and used, the energy from a star needs to be reradiated, or else it would build up and eventually melt the Dyson sphere. This energy would be shifted to longer wavelengths so that a Dyson sphere might give off a peculiar energy signature in the infrared. In other words, Freeman Dyson saw a search for his namesake spheres as a complement in the infrared to what Frank Drake’s Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI, see previous blog post) had begun to do with radiotelescopes.

Carl Sagan and Russell Walker first voiced an issue with Dyson’s SETI notion in their 1966 paper “The Infrared Detectability of Dyson’s Civilizations” for the Astrophysical Journal. The authors noted that:

discrimination of Dyson civilizations from naturally occurring low temperature objects is very difficult, unless Dyson civilizations have some further distinguishing feature, such as monocromatic radio-frequency emission.

In the following decades, the search for Dyson spheres expanded dramatically. Starting from the 1980’s researchers went to work using sources identified by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). These early searches produced little o no results, as most Dyson sphere candidates had either non-technological explanations or needed further study. Subsequent investigations using NASA’s space-based WISE (Wide Field Infrared Survey), with higher resolution than IRAS, have all concluded that the identification of a promising source would not in itself be proof of an extraterrestrial civilization unless the object could be followed up with more conventional methods, such as laser or radio search.

Among the latest developments concerning Dyson spheres are the following:

  • Dyson spheres could be built around black holes instead of stars.

Black holes can radiate incredible amounts of energy (105 more energy than the Sun) produced by the so-called “accretion disk” of gas and dust falling into the black hole’s maw. As a consequence of their spiraling and spinning motions, these materials heat up through friction to millions of degrees, emitting extremely energetic X-ray photons.

But why would an alien civilization decide to build a Dyson sphere around a distant black hole (if it weren’t “distant,” the civilization would have been “eaten” long before it managed to construct the sphere) rather than using their much closer parent star? Black holes concentrate an enormous mass into a space area that is orders of magnitude smaller than a star’s, and are therefore easier to encircle. On the downside, black holes often have bursts of activity followed by quiet periods as they consume varying lumps of matter in their disks. An alien species woulod have to protect their orbiting structures from the huge explosions that might destroy them.

  • Dyson spheres could be circling the husks of sunlike stars known as white dwarfs.

Every star has a finite lifetime. If a civilization arose around a typical sun-like star, then someday that star would turn into a red giant and leave behind a white dwarf. That process would roast its solar system’s inner planets and freeze the outer ones as the white dwarf cooled off. Consequently, the civilization would have to choose between moving to another system or building a series of habitats that harvest the radiation from the remaining white dwarf. It seems unlikely that a civilization, no matter how advanced, would go through the enormous effort of traveling to another star only to build a Dyson sphere.

This allows a direct connection between stellar lifetimes and the prevalence of Dyson spheres.

If enough aliens decided to build Dyson spheres around their white dwarf homes, then astronomers should find at least one Dyson sphere in white dwarf surveys. The presence of a megastructure like a Dyson sphere around a white dwarf would absorb part of its radiation and convert it into reusable energy. Since no conversion is 100% efficient, this process would leave behind waste heat that would escape as infrared light.

Astronomers have already found many white dwarfs with excess infrared emission, usually explained as dust in those systems, not megastructures. According to a paper by Ben Zuckerman and recently accepted for publication in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, no more than 3% of habitable planets around sunlike stars give rise to a white dwarf sphere-building civilization. Still, there are so many planets orbiting sunlike stars that this calculation only provides an upper limit of 9 million potential alien civilizations in the Milky Way.

EP. 5: ARE ROGUE WORLDS THE ULTIMATE ABODE FOR LIFE?

On By AlessandraIn Extrasolar Planets, S.E.T.I.1 Comment

The search for extraterrestrial life has captivated humanity for centuries. Countless questions arise in our quest to discover if we are alone in the vast universe. The Drake Equation, a mathematical formula introduced by astronomer Frank Drake in 1961, attempts to estimate the number of civilizations within our Milky Way Galaxy. However, recent scientific discoveries have unveiled a new intriguing possibility – rogue worlds. These wandering bodies, expelled from their original solar systems, may hold the potential for harboring life. In this blog post, we will explore the fascinating intersection of the Drake Equation and the enigmatic realm of rogue worlds, exploring the tantalizing notion of life beyond our home planet.

The original form of the equation is the following:

N = R* f(p) n(e) f(i) f(l) f (c) L

• N is the number of civilizations trying to communicate with us right now;

• R* is the rate of star formation in stars per year;

• f(p) is the fraction of those stars which have planetary systems;

• n(e) is the number of Goldilocks (i.e., Earth-type) planets in a planetary system);

• f(l) is the fraction of habitable planets that are inhabited;

• f(i) is the fraction of inhabited planets that possess intelligent technological civilizations;

• f (c) is the fraction of intelligent technological civilizations that choose to emit detectable signals;

• L is the length of time signals will be sent.

The first three factors are astronomical, the fourth and fifth are biological, and the last two factors are social. There are several issues with the equation. Among these:

(1) The uncertainties are large enough for the astronomical factors and increase as one progresses from the astronomical to the biological to the social.

(2) Most factors depend on theoretical insights of star and planet formation, new discoveries about exoplanets, and varying subjective opinions on the evolution of life and intelligence. The presumed longevity of civilization must also be taken into account.

(3) The equation has many hidden assumptions: a uniform star formation rate (SFR) over the Galaxy’s lifetime and a steady state of civilization birth and death. 

(4) No matter what value one chooses for R*, the assumption is always that a habitable planet must have a star. However, rogue worlds (bodies that have been thrown out of their own nascent solar system) wander around the Galaxy unattached to a star.

This last item has recently awakened great interest in the scientific community.

Theoretical calculations (Imagined Life, by James S. Trefil and Michael Summers, 2019) suggest that:

“[…] the number of rogues might be between twice and thousands of times the number of conventional planets. Interstellar space must be littered with them!”

Also, rogue planets need not be uninteresting ice balls with no life and energy. Lacking direct radiation from a star, a world can be heated by the residual power from its formation and the radioactive decay of elements in its interior. If provided with one or more moons, the planet can draw energy from a process known as tidal heating (which is responsible for the subsurface oceans on some of Jupiter and Saturn’s moons).

All in all, rogue planets can be compared to (Imagined Life by James S. Trefil and Michael Summers, 2019):

“[…] houses whose lights have been turned off but whose furnaces are still operating.”

Interestingly, rogue planets had been predicted as early as the 1930s by American horror and S.F. author Howard Phillips Lovecraft.

In his short story: The Haunter of the Dark, he wrote:

“[…] remember Yuggoth, and more distant Shaggai, and the ultimate void of the black planets… […].”

When the planet Pluto had just been discovered by Clyde Tombaugh (1906-97) at Lowell Observatory (Flagstaff, Arizona), he wrote another short story: The Whisperer in Darkness.

Here are a few quotes: 

“[…] Their main immediate abode is a still undiscovered and almost lightless planet at the very edge of our solar system – beyond Neptune and the ninth in distance from the [S]un. It is, as we have inferred, the object mystically hinted at as ‘Yuggoth’ in certain ancient and forbidden writings; […] I would not be surprised if astronomers become sufficiently sensitive to these thought-currents to discover Yuggoth when the Outer Ones wish them to do so. But Yuggoth, of course, is only the stepping-stone. The main body of the beings inhabits strangely organised abysses wholly beyond the utmost reach of any human imagination.”

And also:

“[…] Those wild hills are surely the outpost of a frightful cosmic race – as I doubt all the less since reading that a new ninth planet has been glimpsed beyond Neptune, just as those influences had said it would be glimpsed. Astronomers, with a hideous appropriateness they little suspect, have named this thing ‘Pluto.’ I feel, beyond question, that it is nothing less than nighted Yuggoth […].”

What would life be like on a rogue planet?

According to Imagined Life, by J.S. Trefil and M. Summers:

“It’s dark. Not midnight-on-a-side-street dark, but trapped-in-a-cave dark. And no wonder—there’s no sun in the sky, for this is a rogue world, one that circles no star. There is a moon up there somewhere, but without a source of light for it to reflect, it’s just a darker patch in the sky. Whatever life forms live on this planet had better be able to see in infrared because there’s simply no other light to be had. You’re wearing infrared sensors, fortunately, and you spot a few of these creatures scurrying back to the planet’s subterranean tunnels, where they can bask in the heat emanating from the planet’s interior. […]”

Life on a dark planet has been described by British author Arthur C. Clarke in his 1950 short story: A Walk in the Dark:

“[…] Here at the edge of the Galaxy, the stars were so few and scattered that their light was negligible. […]” 

“[…] Here at this outpost of the Universe, the sky held perhaps a hundred faintly gleaming points of light, as useless as the five ridiculous moons on which no one had ever bothered to land. […]” 

“[…] No one could deny that the tunnels out in the wasteland were rather puzzling, but everyone believed them to be volcanic vents. Though, of course, life often crept into such places. With a shudder, he remembered the giant polyps that had snared the first explorers of Vargon III […]

The Drake Equation is not meant to give a precise answer but to stimulate scientific discussion and exploration. It is based on several factors that affect the likelihood of finding intelligent life, such as the rate of star formation, the fraction of stars with planets, the fraction of planets suitable for life, and the fraction of civilizations that develop radio technology. Each factor is multiplied by the previous one, resulting in the number of detectable civilizations in our galaxy. However, many of these factors are uncertain, and different assumptions can lead to different outcomes. For example, some estimates suggest that there could be millions of civilizations in our Galaxy, while others suggest that we might be the only one.

According to a recent study, under the strictest set of assumptions, where life forms between 4.5 billion and 5.5 billion years after star formation, there are likely between four and 211 civilizations in the Milky Way today capable of communicating with others, with 36 the most likely figure. Another study yielded two main results: an optimistic one and a pessimistic one. In the optimistic situation, the researchers suggested the aforementioned 42,777 communicating extraterrestrial intelligent civilizations (CETIs) with an error margin of plus 267 and minus 369, and they would need to survive 2,000 years on average to communicate with us.

The Drake Equation is a fascinating way to explore the possibilities of extraterrestrial life and communication. It helps us understand what we know and don’t know about our place in the universe. It also inspires us to keep searching for signs of other civilizations and to wonder what they might be like.

Read more about this topic in this post and this other post.

EP. 2: IS THE UNIVERSE AN AWFUL WASTE OF SPACE?

On By AlessandraIn Extrasolar Planets, S.E.T.I.

“The universe is a pretty big place. If it’s just us, seems like an awful waste of space.” 

This quote is attributed to Carl Sagan from his novel Contact (1985). It is often interpreted as reflecting Sagan’s optimism and belief in the possibility of extraterrestrial life. He strongly advocated for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) and believed that the discovery of intelligent life beyond Earth would have profound implications for humanity.

In other words, Sagan suggested that if the Universe is so vast and we are the only intelligent life in it, it would be a shame to waste all that space on just one civilization.

A recent estimate (Conselice C.J. et al. 2016) says the observable Universe contains two trillion – or two million million – galaxies. Of course, this is a huge number, which math buffs can probably better appreciate if I translate it into scientific notation:

two trillion = two million million = one thousand billion = 2 x 1012

Even if we neglect 99.9999% of the Universe and consider only the Milky Way, we are left with a staggering number of about 100 to 400 billion stars.

Of course, these hundreds of billion stars vastly differ in age, mass, and chemical composition.

According to the stellar luminosity function:

A small percentage of stars are massive, young, and very bright (the so-called O, B, and A spectral types, with colors ranging from ultraviolet/white to blue);

A relatively large number of stars are medium-sized (the F and G spectral types, yellow to orange in color). Our “dull” Sun is one of them;

The majority of stars are small, old, low-mass stars (the K, M spectral types, a.k.a. red dwarfs);

Many stars are brown dwarfs (dark, spherical lumps of stellar material that never reached the star stage).

In the last few decades, roughly from the early nineties, it has become known that most, if not all, stars possess planets. Our Sun has eight major ones (excluding the KBOs or Kuiper Belt Objects). The former planet Pluto, now demoted to “dwarf planet,” is one).

Just like stars, planets also show a vast range of types.

I found a helpful classification in Imagined Life: A Speculative Scientific Journey among the Exoplanets in Search of Intelligent Aliens, Ice Creatures, and Supergravity Animals by James S. Trefil and Michael Summers. We can envisage the following kinds of exoplanetary environments as the most promising for alien hunters:

(1) Goldilocks Planets: planets like Earth, located at a distance from their star that allows them to have oceans of liquid water on their surface for extended periods;

(2) Subsurface Ocean Worlds: planets on which oceans of liquid water are bounded below by solid rock and above by ice. Examples in our solar system: the planet Pluto and several moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune);

(3) Rogue Worlds: planets without a parent star. Such planets have been ejected from their solar system of origin and now wander through space. An example is OTS 44, a free-floating planetary-mass object located at 550 light-years, with approximately the mass of Jupiter;

(4) Water Worlds: planets with no dry land at all. That’s what a post-apocalyptic Earth would look like. (See, e.g., Kevin Reynolds’ 1995 movie Waterworld);

(5) Tidally Locked Worlds: planets that always present the same face to their star, much as the Moon does with Earth. Their peculiarity is that one side is perennially hot, while the other is an eternal Antarctica;

(6) Super-Earths: planets whose size falls between Earth and Neptune. Given their mass, the main characteristic of these planets is their intense gravity. Creatures must live in oceans or evolve a strategy to deal with this crushing force. A nice fictionalization of this is Edmond Hamilton‘s Starwolf series (1967-68), where Morgan Chane, the son of a human missionary family, grows up in a heavier-than-Earth world.

If these worlds exist, and there’s a tiny chance some might be inhabited, well… I want to see them. I’ll probably never do it in person (sadly, I’m not an astronaut). However, I can still dream about them, hoping someone will get there someday.

I wish someone to be able to say, just like the replicant Roy Batty in Ridley Scott’s 1982 movie Blade Runner:

“I’ve seen things you people wouldn’t believe.
Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion.
I watched C-beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhauser Gate.
All those moments will be lost in time, like tears in the rain.
Time to die.”

Read more about this topic in this post and this other post.