Darker Than You Think is one of the best stories I’ve ever read, if not the best. Although Jack Williamson wrote it in the 1930s, it’s fast-moving, incredibly well-written, and retains its supernatural horror charm. The first time I read it, I was a teenager. Since then, I enjoyed many other books and movies on werewolves, but Darker Than You Think is unique. I found this novel so inspiring that I wrote my own werewolf novel (more on this later.)
The novel’s introduction by Dennis Wheatley in the Gollancz (SF-Gateway) e-book version is worth quoting entirely:
This story by Jack Williamson has a truly original plot.
It is based on the theory that all of us have a small (or occasionally quite large) percentage of evil in us, owing to blood we have inherited from that far distant past when it is said that ‘the Sons of God (Dark Angels in this case) went into the Daughters of Men’.
It starts with Will Barbee, a journalist in the American town of Clarendon, at the local airport. He is on an assignment to report the homecoming of a famous American archaeologist, Dr. Lamarck Mondrick, who is returning from two years’ work in a desolate part of Mongolia.
A few years earlier Barbee had been one of Dr. Mondrick’s most promising students; but when the doctor made up his team to accompany him to Mongolia, without explanation he excluded Barbee and took three of his contemporaries. Later the reason why the doctor would not take Barbee emerges. He sensed that the young man, although ignorant of it himself, had inherited from both his parents blood that contained a dangerously high proportion of this prehistoric evil.
While waiting on the airfield an exceptionally lovely girl, April Bell, introduces herself to Will Barbee as a cub reporter on her first assignment for a rival paper. He is so strongly attracted to her that, against his better judgement, he gives her useful material for writing her article. She is carrying a large open snakeskin bag in which there is a small black kitten and a beautifully carved white jade wolf on a gold pin. The aircraft arrives but there is considerable delay in its passengers disembarking, because Dr. Mondrick wishes to make an announcement of worldwide importance. While the press and television men are assembling, the doctor’s companions bring out from the plane a large box which they will allow no one to approach. He then begins his announcement, but is obviously extremely ill and, before revealing his great secret, falls dead. Later Barbee discovers April’s black kitten dead in an ash can with her wolf-headed pin through its heart.
Fig.2: April Bell. I generated this image with Midjourney AI, starting from Jack Williamson’s description.
Much puzzled, he takes her out to dinner and she tells him of her past. She was illegitimate and her stepfather used to beat her unmercifully. Then she gradually discovered that she had occult powers, and used them as a witch to revenge herself on Barbee is so fascinated by her big green eyes, wonderful head of flaming red hair and alluring body that he cannot believe evil of her, and they continue to meet.
A night comes when in his sleep he hears April calling him; he suffers a few minutes’ physical anguish then tumbles out of bed to find that he has become a big grey wolf. At once he sets off to join her and sees that she is now in the form of a beautiful white wolf. He feels a new freedom through his physical change and derives great pleasure from racing through the deserted streets beside her. The author’s description of Barbee’s reactions as an animal to smells that a human would hardly notice is most skillfully conveyed, and April succeeds in temporarily convincing him that he is one of her own kind – a race of super-humans with powers that will enable them to dominate the world. But they have enemies who must be destroyed: the three young men who accompanied Dr. Mondrick to Mongolia, who are in a desperate state of nerves guarding the mysterious box they brought back; and Dr. Mondrick’s blind widow.
Fig.3: Dr. Lamarck Mondrick’s study, crammed with ancient and mysterious artifacts. I generated this image with Midjourney AI, starting from Jack Williamson’s description.
All four of them know too much; yet they are Barbee’s dearest friends. He is terribly reluctant to harm them. Even so, he becomes more and more enslaved by the lovely witch and delights in those nights when, free from all care, he can rove the countryside with her. Terrible deeds ensue.
Years ago, after I gave up on trying to become a professional astronomer, I decided to follow an old dream of mine, that is, write down the fantasy and Sci-Fi stories I used to tell myself since I was a kid (usually before sleeping, or when I was bored at school, or even when I shouldn’t have, for example when I had to work or study.) The stories were many, with details taken from hundreds of TV shows I’d watched and comics and books I’d read during my early life. Ultimately, they merged into a single plot of three different storylines, converging to an unexpected finale.
The writing technique of taking inspiration from multiple sources was known to the ancient Roman scriptwriters. It was called ‘contamination’ and consisted of taking elements of two or more Greek tragedies to create a new and original Latin script. Far from being plagiarism, many famous authors, screenwriters, and directors are known to have reworked elements from other artists’ productions into their successful creations. For example, when George Lucas wrote and directed the original Star Wars movie, he was influenced by several Sci-Fi and fantasy stories, both in visual and written form. The characters of Princess Leia, the captive of the evil galactic empire, and her rescuers Luke Skywalker and Han Solo are derived from the protagonists of Akira Kurosawa’s The Hidden Fortress (1958) (two Japanese peasants agree to accompany a general and a princess to safety in return for gold). Also, Star Wars’ final scene, where Princess Leia awards her rescuers a gold medal, is almost a carbon copy of the finale of George Sidney’s The Three Musketeers (1948), where the queen of France rewards D’Artagnan & Co.
But I digress. Although my novel The Empire Can Wait is original, it is influenced by Darker Than You Think. Set in a distant future, when humanity has spread all over the Milky Way Galaxy, and interaction with alien races is an everyday matter, it’s the story of a flawed young man on a quest to retrieve the only weapon against a conspiracy led by an evil Prime Minister and his clique of superhumans.
I’ve been self-editing this novel for years, following every writing advice I could find. Now, I’ve reached a point where more editing can only be harmful. So, I plan to share the prologue and the first few chapters of The Empire Can Wait on this website.
Imagine looking up at the night sky and knowing that humanity has the power to move entire stars across the Galaxy. This concept isn’t pure fantasy. A future technology could move stars using stellar engines. This hypothetical megastructure enables an advanced civilization to harness the energy of its parent star and even guide its solar system to a safer or more hospitable region of the cosmos.
But why would anyone want to move a star? The universe is dynamic and often dangerous. Stars are vulnerable to gravitational interactions, nearby supernovae, and even the slow drift through the Galaxy’s regions of varying radiation levels. Stellar engines offer a tantalizing vision of cosmic-scale problem-solving, where intelligent beings could shape their fates on an interstellar stage. For us on Earth, these ideas stretch the limits of imagination and raise intriguing questions about our future in the universe.
What Are Stellar Engines?
At their core, stellar engines are large, theoretical structures intended to control a star’s energy output or even move the star itself. These megastructures stem from speculative science and astrophysics, providing solutions for considerable problems in space and revealing great possibilities for advanced civilizations.
To grasp stellar engines, it’s helpful to consider the Kardashev Scale, which measures a civilization’s technology based on energy use. A Type II civilization can use all the energy from its star. Stellar engines go beyond this by allowing the civilization to influence the star’s movement and behavior.
Stellar engines are linked to megastructures like Dyson Spheres, which are large shells or groups of satellites that surround a star to gather its energy. Unlike just collecting energy, stellar engines also have systems that use that energy for movement. This means they are energy sources and tools for navigating the Galaxy and ensuring survival.
Though purely theoretical at this stage, stellar engines are fascinating because they represent the ultimate fusion of science and engineering. They challenge us to think big, not just in terms of individual planets or solar systems, but in the ability to reshape the Galaxy. By studying these ideas, we gain insight into the limits of technology and the ingenuity needed to transcend them.
How Do Stellar Engines Work?
Stellar engines work by harnessing the immense energy output of a star and redirecting it for specific purposes, such as propulsion or power generation. While the exact mechanisms remain speculative, scientists and theorists have proposed several designs that outline how these structures work. Here are the primary types of stellar engines:
Shkadov Thruster.
The most straightforward and widely discussed stellar engine design, the Shkadov Thruster, uses a giant, reflective mirror to create an imbalance in a star’s radiation pressure. Reflecting light asymmetrically generates a small but continuous thrust that can slowly move the star and its solar system over millions of years. Think of it as a colossal cosmic sail.
2. Kardashev – Dyson Engine
This concept involves constructing a Dyson Sphere or Dyson Swarm around a star to capture its energy. A part of this energy is then redirected to power propulsion systems, effectively turning the star into a galactic engine. This design emphasizes energy efficiency and control, offering mobility and a near-limitless energy supply for the civilization operating it.
3. Caplan Thruster
A more modern and complex design, the Caplan Thruster, introduces active intervention. This system would collect hydrogen and helium from the interstellar medium or the star itself and use fusion reactions to create plasma jets. These jets would push against the star, generating propulsion. The Caplan Thruster represents a significant step toward controlled and directional stellar movement, but it requires advanced technology and precise engineering.
Each design has challenges, from material requirements to energy management and sheer scale. For instance, building a reflective surface or a Dyson Swarm large enough to enclose a star is far beyond humanity’s current capabilities. Nevertheless, these ideas offer a blueprint for what might one day be possible for civilizations millions or billions of years ahead.
Stellar engines also highlight the delicate balance between ambition and practicality. Even with advanced technology, the energy needed to move a star is astronomical—yet the slow, steady movement enabled by these engines could allow civilizations to adapt to long-term cosmic threats and opportunities.
Why Move a Star?
The idea of relocating a star may seem excessive or unnecessary, but there are compelling reasons why an advanced civilization might consider such an effort. Here are some key motivations:
Avoiding Cosmic Hazards
The universe is filled with potential threats that could endanger a star system’s habitability. Supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, or even rogue black holes pose existential risks. A stellar engine could allow a civilization to move its star system away from dangerous regions of space, ensuring long-term survival.
2. Optimizing Habitability
Over time, stars naturally evolve and change, impacting the habitability of their surrounding planets. For instance, a star may brighten as it ages, potentially rendering its planets too hot for life. A stellar engine could help keep the optimal distance between a planet and its star, prolonging the system’s habitability.
3. Galactic Colonization
As civilizations expand and seek new frontiers, stellar engines could allow entire star systems to migrate to regions with abundant resources or less competition. This would aid interstellar colonization on a massive scale, allowing a civilization to thrive across the Galaxy.
4. Escaping Dying Galaxies
In the distant future, galaxies may face challenges such as reduced star formation or gravitational interactions that lead to destabilization. Moving stars to more active or stable regions could guarantee the longevity of a civilization’s energy sources and resources.
5. Creating Custom Galactic Trajectories
Advanced civilizations might engineer their star systems’ trajectories to explore specific regions of the Galaxy, join in cosmic-scale projects, or even form alliances with other civilizations. Stellar engines would supply the mobility necessary for such strategic decisions.
While these motivations are speculative, they highlight the strategic thinking that might drive a civilization’s pursuit of stellar engines. These megastructures are not merely survival tools but instruments of cosmic exploration, adaptability, and ambition. For humanity, even considering such possibilities challenges us to rethink our place in the universe and inspires a future of limitless potential.
Challenges And Realities
While the concept of stellar engines sparks the imagination, the challenges of building such colossal structures are daunting. These challenges remind us that stellar engines, though theoretically possible, remain firmly in the realm of speculation due to technological, logistical, and ethical barriers. Here are some of the most significant hurdles:
Energy Requirements
Moving a star involves manipulating an astronomical amount of energy. For instance, generating the thrust needed to shift the Sun would need far more energy than humanity now produces or could produce with foreseeable technology. Even harnessing a small part of a star’s energy for propulsion is monumental.
2. Material Limitations
The materials needed to construct structures as massive as a Dyson Swarm or a Shkadov Thruster must withstand intense radiation, extreme heat, and the gravitational forces near a star. Developing these materials would be a prerequisite to any stellar engine project.
3. Time Scales
Even with advanced technology, moving a star would take thousands, if not millions, of years. This requires planning and long-term thinking far beyond what humanity has ever achieved. Focusing on such projects over vast periods would be essential for civilizations capable of stellar engines.
4. Engineering Complexity
The scale and precision needed to build and run a stellar engine are unprecedented. Coordinating the construction of a Dyson Sphere or directing a Caplan Thruster would need breakthroughs in robotics, artificial intelligence, and space logistics.
5. Ethical Considerations
Using stellar engines would have profound implications for any planets or systems affected by a star’s movement. Disrupting the orbits of neighboring systems or causing ecological harm would raise serious ethical questions. Advanced civilizations must balance their ambitions with a commitment to minimizing damage.
6. Risk of Failure
The risks linked to such projects are immense. A miscalculation in energy output or propulsion could destabilize an entire solar system, potentially threatening any civilizations or ecosystems reliant on that star.
Despite these challenges, stellar engines represent the pinnacle of speculative engineering—a testament to the ingenuity and ambition of intelligent life. Exploring these ideas pushes the boundaries of what we consider possible and inspires us to prepare for a future that may one day include cosmic-scale projects. Whether or not humanity ever builds a stellar engine, pursuing such knowledge is a vital part of our journey to understand the universe and our place within it.
Conclusion
Stellar engines are more than just a speculative idea; they are a testament to the boundless potential of intelligent life to reshape the universe. These concepts challenge us to think on scales far beyond our current technological capabilities and inspire us to dream of a future where humanity can wield the power of the stars themselves.
While the challenges of constructing such megastructures are immense, exploring their possibilities encourages innovation and long-term thinking. They remind us that our journey as a species is not confined to the Earth or even the solar system but tied to the vast expanse of the cosmos. By considering the engineering, ethical, and logistical hurdles of stellar engines, we take steps toward understanding what it means to be a genuinely interstellar civilization.
The dream of moving a star—or even shaping the Galaxy—represents science and imagination’s ultimate fusion. Though we are far from realizing such feats, pursuing these ideas can push the boundaries of our knowledge and fuel our aspirations. As we stand on the brink of incredible technological advancements, the question is no longer whether we can dream big but how those dreams might become reality someday. Stellar engines remind us that the universe is not just a backdrop to our existence but a playground for innovation and discovery. They urge us to embrace a cosmic perspective, where the limits of what we can achieve are defined only by the scope of our imagination and the courage to act upon it.
Through the lens of stellar engines, we glimpse a future where humanity transcends its terrestrial origins to become a force of creativity and adaptation on a galactic scale. This vision challenges us to build the tools and technologies needed.
It had been nearly seven decades since Zelvyn T’hrialis first set foot on Earth as an undercover cat, black with piercing yellow eyes. Zelvyn came from the Omega Centauri star cluster. He was a member of a highly advanced humanoid race known for their incredible intellect and advanced technologies that far surpassed anything humans had developed. The High Command for Intergalactic Operations (HCIO) tasked him to study human behavior, delving deep into their social structures, emotional complexities, and daily routines. This was in preparation for the imminent invasion of Earth.
Zelvyn roamed the planet as a cat, observing humans and their interactions from a unique and often amusing perspective. He watched families during holidays, saw daily life’s mundane yet intimate rituals, and even experienced the fleeting joys and sorrows that filled human hearts. Over the years, he infiltrated countless households, always charming his way into the hearts of his unsuspecting owners with his intelligence and grace. But it was with Eliza, a kind-hearted middle-aged teacher who inspired young minds, that Zelvyn formed a more potent bond than before. Their bond transcended the boundaries between species and transformed their lives.
Eliza had rescued Zelvyn from a shelter sixteen years ago, unaware of his true identity. She had showered him with love and care, treating him like family and integrating him into her daily life with unwavering affection. Zelvyn, in turn, had grown to love Eliza in a way he never thought possible, feeling an emotional depth alien to his kind. But now, the time had come for him to move on to his next assignment, a mission that weighed heavily on his heart. Zelvyn found himself torn, caught in the crossfire of duty and love. He had to choose between his loyalty to his race and his attachment to his owner, a decision that would alter the course of their destinies forever.
On top of that, Zelvyn had recently befriended Luna, a lively Siamese cat that Eliza had adopted, injecting new energy into the household. Luna was a playful and affectionate feline, always eager to chase after stray shadows and pounce on unsuspecting toys. Still, Zelvyn couldn’t help but feel superior to her in every way. He constantly compared Luna to himself with a smugness he couldn’t shake, finding her antics amusing yet somewhat juvenile.
As the day of his departure drew near, marked on his mental calendar with a mixture of dread and anticipation, Zelvyn struggled with conflicting emotions. On one hand, he knew that his mission was crucial for the future of his race, a task that held the weight of intergalactic responsibility. But he faced a dilemma that gnawed at his conscience. He couldn’t bear leaving behind the home that had welcomed him so warmly. He also couldn’t bear leaving the people who had shown him so much kindness, understanding, and unconditional love, knowing that their lives would carry on without him as a comforting presence. Each pawstep felt heavier as he pondered the choices ahead, the invisible thread tying him to Eliza and the life they had built together, making his heart ache with the thought of separation.
Finally, on the eve of his departure, Zelvyn made a decision. He sent a message to the HCIO, informing them that he had chosen to stay on Earth. In his message, he painted a bleak picture of the planet and its inhabitants, describing humans as violent and ignorant creatures unworthy of conquest.
With that, Zelvyn destroyed his communication device and settled back into his life with Eliza and Luna. He knew that his decision would have consequences, but for the first time in his long existence, Zelvyn felt at peace. He had found a sense of belonging on Earth and was willing to risk everything to protect it.
As he curled up next to Eliza and Luna, Zelvyn felt the warmth of their presence. He knew he had made the right choice. Days turned into weeks, and Zelvyn embraced his new life as a simple Earth cat.
A middle-aged woman named Eliza, a high school teacher, lived in a small, cozy cottage at the edge of town. For the past fifteen years, her loyal companion was a black cat named Midnight with striking yellow eyes. Eliza had adopted Midnight from a shelter. From the beginning, the cat remained aloof and distant. Midnight never showed affection towards her.
Despite Midnight’s cold demeanor, Eliza loved him dearly and cared for him with all her heart. She knew some cats were more independent than others, and she respected Midnight’s space. Still, she always hoped he would warm up to her one day.
Eliza’s elderly mother called her one day. She was sick and no longer cared for her Siamese cat, Luna. She asked Eliza to take Luna in. Eliza reluctantly agreed, and soon, Luna became a regular visitor at the cottage. The presence of Luna seemed to awaken a new side of Midnight. He became filled with jealousy. Midnight feared losing his human mom to the newcomer.
Midnight sensed Luna’s scent on Eliza’s clothes whenever she returned from visiting her mother. The smell made him anxious and insecure. He almost stopped eating altogether. Eliza grew worried as she watched him grow thinner. He became weaker with each passing day.
One evening, as Eliza sat by the fireplace with Midnight curled up nearby, she noticed tears in his yellow eyes. Then, the realization struck her. Midnight had always loved her silently. Now, he was terrified of losing her to Luna.
Fig.1: Midnight, the black cat, worries about losing Eliza’s love.
Tears were streaming down her cheeks. Eliza hugged Midnight. She promised him that he would always be her number-one companion, no matter what. Midnight slowly started eating again from that day on and regained his strength. The bond between Eliza and Midnight grew more potent than ever. Luna was welcomed into the family with open arms.
Eliza knew their little family was whole as the three cuddled together by the warm fireplace. It was filled with love and understanding. There was an unbreakable bond between a woman and her two beloved feline companions.
If you’ve ever dreamed of traveling beyond the Solar System and exploring the Universe, you’re certainly not alone. Humanity hasn’t yet realized the technology for interstellar travel as it’s often depicted in science fiction tales. However, we can still journey through the stars vicariously through the wonders of literature. Lose yourself in the pages of classic space exploration stories and modern sagas that push the boundaries of what’s possible. Diverse in scope and style, these works range from the scientifically grounded to the wonderfully speculative.
In a previous post, I explored the science behind the most popular interstellar propulsion methods, some highly speculative, that could allow humanity to journey to the stars. These methods stir the imagination and stretch the limits of our perceived possibilities. Now, I’ll present a famous novel for each of these methods, where the narrative is based, at least in part, on space travel using such drives. Additionally, I’ll summarize two popular novels that cover interstellar distances using technologies not discussed in the earlier post: the Alcubierre Drive and cryonics, or suspended animation.
(1) Alcubierre Drive
The Alcubierre drive, also known as a warp drive, is a speculative concept proposed by Mexican theoretical physicist Miguel Alcubierre in 1994. It involves creating a “warp bubble” that contracts space in front of a spacecraft and expands space behind it, allowing the spacecraft to travel faster than light without violating the laws of physics.
The science fiction series Star Trek popularized the concept of a warp bubble called a “warp drive.” Scientists have proposed various theoretical frameworks. Yet, the warp bubble concept is linked with significant challenges and limitations. One major obstacle is the need for exotic matter with negative energy density, as in the case of creating wormholes. The energy requirements for creating and sustaining a warp bubble are immense. It requires amounts of energy far beyond our current technological capabilities.
Fig.1: Argus Station, as described in the three novels of the Owner trilogy. The station’s hub is a recycled ion-propelled starship, which, in the third novel, The Jupiter War, is equipped with an Alcubierre (or Rhine) Drive. I made the image using Midjourney AI.
Neal Asher’s The Departure is the inaugural novel in the Owner Trilogy. It is set in a dystopian future where Earth’s overpopulation has led to severe resource scarcity and oppressive governance by the authoritarian Committee. The elite lives in luxury, while the majority, deemed “Zero Asset” citizens, endure harsh conditions under constant surveillance by mechanized enforcers. The story follows Alan Saul, who awakens in a crate en route to the Calais incinerator with fragmented memories and a burning craving for vengeance against his tormentors. Aided by Janus, an AI implanted in his brain, Saul becomes a formidable adversary to the Committee, aiming to dismantle their tyrannical regime.
In the novel, the Alcubierre drive is called the “Rhine Drive,” named after the character Jasper Rhine, who developed it. The term “Zero Point” in the series alludes to the zero-point field linked with this propulsion method. While The Departure introduces these concepts, the following books in the Owner Trilogy, Zero Point and Jupiter War, delve deeper into the development and implications of the Rhine Drive and related technologies. These novels explore the challenges and possibilities of faster-than-light travel within the series’ Universe.
Fig.2: The ‘reefer unit’ containing Captain Brannigan’s corpse, as described in the novel Revelation Space by Alastair Reynolds. I made the image with Midjourney AI.
In Revelation Space (2000) by Alastair Reynolds, the concept of ‘reefer sleep’ is used to halt the aging process by freezing some of its characters as they embark on a quest across the cosmos to discover the secrets of an ancient civilization. All while dealing with the practical and psychological implications of extended cryosuspension.
The novel intricately weaves elements of space opera with hard science fiction. The story is set in the 26th century amidst a universe populated by decaying civilizations and dormant mysteries. It primarily follows the journey of Dan Sylveste, an archaeologist obsessed with uncovering the truth behind the ancient Amarantin civilization, whose sudden extinction puzzles scientists.
Sylveste’s quest is further complicated by the arrival of the spaceship Nostalgia for Infinity, captained by the enigmatic Ilia Volyova. She and her crew seek Sylveste’s skill to save their captain, whose life is threatened by a peculiar virus that turns him into a cybernetic entity. As they traverse the galaxy, uncovering ancient alien technologies and confronting dangerous conspiracies, they unearth the terrifying revelation that the extinction of the Amarantin is not an isolated event but part of a broader cosmic catastrophe.
Fig.3: A generation ship. I made the image using Midjourney AI.
Orphans of the Sky is a pioneering work of science fiction. It was first published as two connected stories in 1941 before merging into a single novel. The story unfolds on the ‘Vanguard,’ a generation ship launched from Earth intended to colonize a distant planet. Over the centuries, the ship’s original mission is forgotten, and its enclosed society regresses into a feudal system, with the inhabitants unaware they are aboard a spacecraft.
The protagonist, Hugh Hoyland, is a young man from the lower decks who becomes aware of the ship’s true nature through a series of events. Captured by the ship’s ruling class, the Scientists, Hugh is educated and eventually realizes the vast structure he inhabits is moving through space. This revelation shatters the mythologies and superstitions that have developed among the ship’s population, who believe the Universe consists only of the ship’s interior.
Hugh’s journey of discovery leads him to try to convince others of the truth. He faces significant resistance from those in power who fear change and from a populace incapable of grasping the reality of their situation.
Fig.4: A generation ship built in the style of a Stanford Torus. I made the image using DALL-E AI.
Aurora was published in 2015. The story follows the journey of a generation ship—built in the style of a Stanford Torus—to Tau Ceti to start a human colony. The ship’s artificial intelligence serves as the primary narrator.
The ship is launched from Earth in 2545 at 0.1 c (i.e., traveling at 108,000,000 km/h or 10% the speed of light) and includes twenty-four self-contained biomes and an average population of two thousand people. One hundred sixty years and approximately seven generations later, it is beginning to decelerate into the Tau Ceti system to colonize a planet’s moon, an Earth-like world named Aurora.
Devi, the ship’s de facto chief engineer and leader, is concerned about the ship’s decaying infrastructure and biology: systems are breaking down, each generation has lower intelligence test scores than the last, and bacteria are mutating and evolving faster than humans. She tells the ship’s AI (named ‘Ship’) to keep a narrative of the voyage.
After having trouble understanding the human concept of narrative, Ship eventually elects to follow the life of Devi’s daughter, Freya, as a protagonist. As a teenager, Freya travels around the ship on her wanderjahr. She learns that many of its inhabitants are dissatisfied with their enclosed existence and what they perceive as a dictatorship. Movement is strictly limited for most people, reproduction is tightly controlled, and education in science and mathematics is mandatory. Freya’s wanderjahr comes to an end when she is called home as Devi grows sick from cancer and dies.
The ship arrives in the Tau Ceti system, and the crew settles in Aurora, a moon of Tau Ceti e. It soon becomes clear that extraterrestrial life is found in the form of primitive prions, which infect and kill some of the landing parties. All except one of the remaining settlers try to return to the ship, and some of those remaining onboard kill them in the airlock to keep quarantine, leading to a violent political schism. ‘Ship,’ which has been moving towards self-awareness, takes physical control of the situation by lowering oxygen levels and separating warring factions, referring to itself as “the rule of law.”
It then reveals to the crew that two ships were initially launched for the Tau Ceti expedition. Still, the other was destroyed during severe civil unrest, and the collective memory of that event was erased from the historical records. In the end, a more peaceful debate occurs between the inhabitants about what to do now that Aurora is known to be inhospitable.
Fig.5: The Hermes spaceship as described in the novel The Martian. I generated the image using DALL-E AI.
The Martian by Andy Weir is an excellent example of a science fiction novel where an interstellar spaceship is driven by ion propulsion. Although The Martian primarily focuses on Mars colonization and survival, it features the Hermes spacecraft, which uses ion propulsion for its journey between Earth and Mars. While not interstellar in the strictest sense, the detailed depiction of ion propulsion in space travel within our solar system provides a realistic glimpse into how such technology might be used for longer interstellar voyages in the context of science fiction.
Fig.6: The Canterbury space station as described in the novel Leviathan Wakes. It was a retooled colony transport propelled by an ion engine. The Canterbury had hauled millions of people to the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. I made the image using DALL-E AI.
For a more interstellar focus, consider Leviathan Wakes by James S.A. Corey, the first book in The Expanse series. While the series doesn’t exclusively focus on ion propulsion, it does feature a realistic space travel technology (called Epstein Drive) within a future where humanity has colonized the solar system. Ships in The Expanse use a form of efficient propulsion that, while not always explicitly labeled as ion propulsion, is reminiscent of current and theoretical space propulsion technologies, including aspects of ion drives for long-distance travel.
Fig.7: The starship Leonora Christine as described in the novel Tau Zero by Poul Anderson. The ship has scoopfield webs that make her look like an enormous spider. I made the image using DALL-E AI.
Tau Zero by Poul Anderson (1970) is a classic space opera that takes readers on an extraordinary journey through space. The story unfolds aboard the starship Leonora Christine, a vessel on a mission to explore distant stars. However, a catastrophic malfunction in the ship’s Bussard ramjet drive leaves the crew facing a tough challenge.
As the ship accelerates uncontrollably, nearing the speed of light, relativistic time dilation comes into play. While mere weeks pass for the crew, centuries elapse outside the accelerating vessel. The novel brilliantly explores the psychological and societal implications of time dilation as the crew realizes they may never return to Earth.
Anderson skillfully weaves hard science fiction concepts into the narrative, detailing the crew’s attempts to adapt to relativistic physics. The crew’s interpersonal dynamics evolve, and the story delves into the human condition in the face of isolation and the inevitable passage of time.
The novel combines scientific rigor with a sense of wonder, creating a compelling exploration of both the vastness of space and the depths of the human spirit. Tau Zero stands as a timeless work in the genre, inviting readers to contemplate the implications of relativistic travel and the resilience of the human species in the cosmos.
Fig.8: The view from the main lounge of King David’s Starship as described in the novel by Jerry Pournelle. I made the image using DALL-E AI.
King David’s Spaceship was first published in 1980. Pournelle, known for his contributions to military science fiction, creates a narrative combining space opera elements with a focus on political and strategic maneuvering.
Set in a future where Earth has a vast interstellar empire, the story revolves around Falkenberg’sLegion, a military force that maintains control of distant planets. When a rebellion on planet Gram is suspected, the Empire sends in a force led by Captain Rick Galloway to quell the uprising.
The Empire had a strict policy against interstellar warfare, so Galloway must find a way to subdue the rebellion without violating these rules. King David’s Spaceship is a tale of strategy, diplomacy, and military action in an interstellar setting.
The novel envisions spacecraft equipped with antimatter engines that harness this annihilation energy for propulsion. By carefully controlling and directing the release of energy, these ships achieve the necessary thrust to travel vast distances across interstellar space.
Fig.9: The starship Dawn Tread, described in the novel Anvil of Stars by Greg Bear. I made the image using Midjourney AI.
Anvil of Stars is a science fiction novel by Greg Bear. It is a sequel to his earlier work, The Forge of God, and was initially released in 1992.
A few survivors embark on a vengeance mission after Earth’s destruction. Enigmatic beings known as “The Benefactors ” send them on a quest to locate and eradicate “The Killers,” the civilization responsible for Earth’s demise. The Benefactors’ Law mandates the “Destruction of all ETIs (ExtraTerrestrial Intelligences) responsible for or linked to the manufacture of self-replicating and destructive devices.”
The novel primarily follows the perspective of Martin Gordon, also known as Martin Spruce, who is the son of a central character from The Forge of God. Martin leads a group of survivors who have adopted an on-ship culture inspired by Peter Pan. They aim to track down the elusive Killers and bring them to justice.
The propulsion method of the starship called Dawn Tread is one of the novel’s fascinating aspects, showcasing Bear’s integration of advanced science fiction concepts. The starship utilizes advanced propulsion technologies, including manipulating gravity waves and using “Knots,” essentially quantum singularities. These Knots allow the ship to manipulate spacetime for faster-than-light travel, effectively enabling the crew to traverse vast interstellar distances in a relatively short period. This method of propulsion is not just a means of transportation; it’s integral to the narrative, reflecting the novel’s exploration of high-concept science fiction and the ethical dilemmas of wielding such profound technological power.
Fig.10: The light sail used by the alien spacecraft The Mote as described in the novel The Mote in God’s Eye by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle. I made the image with Dall-E.
The Mote in God’s Eye, co-authored by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, was first published in 1974. This classic science fiction novel is set in the distant future within the expansive CoDominium universe. The story begins with the discovery of an alien spacecraft near the star Murcheson’s Eye, which humans nickname “the Mote.” This discovery leads to the first contact between humans and an alien species, the Moties.
The novel centers around the crew of the Imperial battlecruiser MacArthur, including Captain Roderick Blaine, anthropologist Sally Fowler, and scientist Renner, among others. They are tasked with investigating the Moties, who initially appear to be a peaceful and technologically advanced species. However, as the human crew learns more about the Moties, they uncover a dark secret: the Moties are trapped in a relentless cycle of overpopulation and societal collapse, driven by their biology and social structure.
The Moties are divided into specialized castes designed for specific tasks, from engineers to diplomats to warriors. This specialization has allowed them to develop advanced technology and limits their ability to adapt and innovate. As the human characters grapple with their discovery’s ethical and strategic implications, they must decide whether to help the Moties break their cycle or quarantine them to prevent potential threats to humanity.
The Mote in God’s Eye is a richly detailed narrative that explores themes of first contact, the consequences of technological advancement, and the moral dilemmas inherent in interactions between vastly different civilizations. The novel is celebrated for its intricate plot, well-developed characters, and thought-provoking examination of alien and human societies.
Fig.11: An underground hangar on Mercury where the Sunships are getting ready to explore the Sun’s atmosphere, as described in the novel Sundiver by David Brin. Image made by the author with Dall-E.
David Brin’s novel Sundiver, first published in 1980, is a fascinating science fiction tale set in a future where humanity has discovered that advanced alien civilizations “uplift” pre-sapient species to full sentience. The story follows Jacob Demwa, a human in an investigative team exploring the Sun. This team is part of an Earth-based organization known as the Sundiver Mission. Their task is to study strange entities observed within the Sun’s chromosphere, which may be linked to alien civilizations.
The novel delves into the complexities of interspecies politics, the ethics of genetic manipulation, and the existential quest for understanding one’s place in the cosmos. Demwa, a skilled biologist and diplomat, becomes embroiled in a mystery involving these solar entities, leading to a thrilling adventure combining hard science fiction and detective story elements. Throughout his journey, Demwa confronts political intrigue, the challenge of self-discovery, and the profound implications of humanity’s interactions with more ancient and advanced races.
Concerning propulsion, Sundiver features advanced spacecraft that use various futuristic propulsion techniques. The ships can dive into the Sun’s atmosphere, suggesting the use of sophisticated shielding technologies and propulsion systems that can withstand extreme heat and radiation. These include magnetic fields for protection and plasma-based engines for maneuvering within the Sun’s intense environment. The novel imagines these ships utilizing the Sun’s vast energy, harnessing solar power in ways far beyond current technological capabilities, showcasing Brin’s visionary take on space exploration and technological advancement.
In Carl Sagan’s novel Contact, humanity receives a detailed blueprint of a complex machine through a mysterious radio message from outer space. The blueprint, seemingly sent by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, presents a technical challenge of immense proportions. After extensive international collaboration and overcoming several political and scientific hurdles, the Machine is built.
The Machine is an enormous, intricate spacecraft designed to carry a crew of five individuals through a series of wormholes or tunnels in space-time, allowing them to traverse vast interstellar distances almost instantaneously. The Machine’s structure includes a series of concentric rings, which spin at high speeds to generate artificial gravity and stabilize the craft. At the heart of the Machine is a sophisticated quantum computer, which controls its operations and ensures the safe passage of its occupants.
Once constructed, the Machine is stationed at a remote location, heavily guarded and under strict observation. The crew, composed of scientists and engineers from various countries, undergoes rigorous training to prepare for the unprecedented journey. When activated, the Machine creates a dazzling light show and immense gravitational waves, signifying the opening of the wormholes. The journey through these tunnels is disorienting and surreal, with the travelers experiencing strange and otherworldly phenomena.
Upon their arrival at their destination, the crew encounters a simulated environment designed by the sending civilization to make first contact more comprehensible. The Machine’s mission reveals profound insights into the nature of the Universe and humanity’s place within it, raising fundamental questions about existence, intelligence, and the future of human civilization.
Fig.13: One of the starships built to travel through wormholes and maintained by child workers as described in The Algebraist. I made the image using Midjourney AI.
The Algebraist (2004) is a science fiction novel set in the distant future within a galaxy controlled by the Mercatoria, a vast and oppressive interstellar empire. The story follows Fassin Taak, a human Seer whose job is to study the Dwellers, an ancient and enigmatic alien species that inhabits gas giants. The Dwellers are nearly immortal and have an unparalleled knowledge of the galaxy’s history and secrets, including the location of mysterious wormholes that could change the balance of power in the galaxy.
When a hidden Dweller List containing crucial wormhole network coordinates is discovered, Fassin retrieves it. However, the Mercatoria and a powerful, rogue warlord named Archimandrite Luseferous are also pursuing the List. As Fassin delves deeper into the Dweller culture, he faces challenges and betrayals, uncovering secrets that shake his understanding of the Universe.
The novel explores themes of power, freedom, and the complexities of ancient civilizations. It is filled with Banks’ characteristic wit, intricate world-building, and philosophical insights.
Fig.14: A starship traveling through space with ‘The Flow,’ as described in John Scalzi’s novel The Collapsing Empire. The author made the image using DALL-E AI.
The Collapsing Empire (2017) revolves around a human empire (the Interdependency) spread across many star systems, all connected by a faster-than-light pathway known as ‘The Flow.’
The Flow is an extradimensional field accessible at specific points in space-time and is more than just a method of transportation; it’s integral to the Interdependency’s social, economic, and political fabric. The empire was built on the premise that no colony could be self-reliant, ensuring compulsory interstellar trade and cooperation enforced by the monopolistic and ruling houses.
The novel centers on three primary characters: Cardenia, a reluctant new empress of the Interdependency; Marce Claremont, a scientist specializing in Flow physics; and Kiva Lagos, an audacious and foul-mouthed starship captain. Their lives intertwine as they uncover and navigate the political machinations and crises confronting the empire. Central to the plot is Marce’s groundbreaking discovery that The Flow, which has been stable for centuries, is shifting and may soon disappear. This could doom human colonies that depend on it for survival, effectively isolating entire star systems. This revelation sets off a chain of events filled with intrigue and betrayal.
Are cats jealous? If you never lived with a cat you’ll likely answer no, but most cat owners say otherwise.
My cat, Chettoh (see this previous post) recently got a rival. After more than fourteen years as an only son, he now has to compete with another cat, a seventeen-year-old Siamese I inherited from my sister after she moved from a large house to a smaller apartment and couldn’t keep him any longer. Napo (short for Napoleon, like the XVIII century French emperor) is a tame, affectionate, lovely feline—quite the opposite of my Chettoh. My cat, since infancy, has always been an aloof, mistrustful little thug. This doesn’t mean I don’t love him. Quite the opposite. However, his supposed coolness quickly evaporated when he smelled the scent of another cat on his human mom (N.B.! Napo doesn’t live with Chettoh and me, yet. He’s still at my parents’ place, where my sister stored most of her discarded items – well, yes, Napo is one of them – but I visit every day to take care of him.)
When Chettoh started his jealous behavior, I wasn’t aware of it at first. He had always been a stereotypical cat, seeking human contact only when it was time for nourishment or physical warmth. Soon, however, unusual events became more and more frequent, for example: potty accidents, like using the floor instead of the litter box (previously, Chettoh had been a relatively clean and tidy cat), further aloofness coupled with being loud and demanding (Chettoh always preferred to isolate himself during most of the day, sleeping 80% of the time, but after he sensed the presence of another cat in my life, he alternated meowing obsessively for food and cuddles, with long periods of not acknowledging my existence or, if he did, avoiding eye contact.) (N.B.! Some information in this paragraph has been inspired by: Cats – PetHelpful).
However, can a cat really be jealous of a human? Or am I projecting a human behavior on what could simply be multiple signs of cat’s aging brain? As I said above, and in this previous post, Chettoh is now almost fifteen; in human terms he’s an octogenarian; definitely a senior.
In other words, does a non-human brain need a minimum level of intelligence to experience human-like feelings?
Fig.1: Wolfram “Wolfie” Chettoh. Image made by the author with Midjourney AI.
How Smart Are Cats?
What is the scientific evidence that cats are clever?
Cats have a brain that is about 90% similar to humans, with a complex surface folding pattern that increases the surface area and the number of nerve cells;
Cats also have more cortical neurons than dogs, which suggests that they have greater information-processing capacity;
Cats can learn observation and imitation, solve puzzles, manipulate objects, use tools, and communicate with humans using vocalizations and body language;
Cats can recognize their names, distinguish human facial expressions, and remember events for up to 16 hours;
Cats are not as social as dogs, but they can form complex relationships with other cats and humans based on mutual trust and respect;
Cats have different types of intelligence, such as spatial intelligence (cats with significant spatial intelligence are good at finding their way home from great distances. There are famous stories of cats who were lost or abandoned hundreds of miles from their owners’ places and successfully found their way back months or even years later). Other cats may excel at interpersonal intelligence (cats who form powerful bonds with their human parent, like the ones who mourn on their owner’s grave), intrapersonal intelligence (the hardest to measure: who knows what goes on in the mind of another sentient being, let alone a cat?), musical intelligence (my cat Chettoh, see previous posts, probably isn’t much endowed with this one, because he hates when I stream any music on my phone), and linguistic intelligence (some cats can mold their “meowing” into an astonishing variety of sounds and pitches to make themselves understood by their “dumb” humans.) (From: How Intelligent Are Cats? Science Has an Answer – Cats.com).
So, do cats get jealous?
Fig. 2: A young kitten in the Sonoran Desert. Image made by the author with Midjourney AI.
Cats can experience jealousy to a certain degree. While jealousy is a complex emotion for humans, it’s a bit more simple for cats. Our feline friends live in the moment, so when we think they’re experiencing jealousy, it’s more likely they’re merely coveting something, whether it’s an object or a certain treatment. In contrast, humans feel jealous when we start to ruminate on the point of contention. Still, cat jealousy is very real.
Cats that are brought up and nurtured within a family are much more social. Their interactions far surpass the feeding and physical comfort stage. They are a part of the family, and they begin to act like any household member. Any upset to their balance can cause anger, jealousy and hurt.
There is some evidence suggesting that cats may indeed experience jealousy.
For example, cats may display aggressive or attention-seeking behaviors when they perceive a threat to their owner’s attention or affection. Cats have a highly developed sense of smell, and they can detect the presence of other cats on their owner’s clothes or body. This can trigger feelings of jealousy or insecurity in some cats, leading to changes in behavior. Some cats can become clingy or needy or intrude in your personal space when you are busy or occupied with something else. However, cats are complex creatures, and their behaviors can be influenced by various factors, including their personalities, past experiences, and overall environment. As a result, cats can show signs of jealousy in subtle or obvious ways.
Common signs of jealousy in cats.
They are blocking access to furniture or doorways. Anecdotal Evidence: my cat Chettoh, even when he wasn’t competing with another cat, always tried to grab my attention, for example, lying sideways across the hallway or blocking access to the bathroom or the entrance/exit door.
They make eye contact with a person or animal they dislike. No direct evidence for this. Napo, my other cat, doesn’t live in the same place as Chettoh, even though they both know about each other’s existence from the odorous clues each of them leaves on my hands and clothes;
They rub on everything their competitor has touched. Chettoh has been rubbing on my ankles much more since I began caring for Napo. Also, he’s taken up the habit of jumping on the table where I’m preparing dinner not just to solicit food but to offer his head for cuddles;
They solicit attention but then bite or scratch when petted. Anecdotal Evidence: this is typical Chettoh behavior. Oftentimes, my cat meows insistently, without apparent purpose. He doesn’t want food or drink, and isn’t sick either. Occasionally, he even tricks me into thinking he wants to play. However, when I approach him, if I’m slow to guess his real intentions, I may feel his inch-long fangs on my hand;
They bite or scratch when someone tries to move them away from something they want. Anecdotal Evidence: Like most animals, Chettoh is interested in everything that moves because it might be prey. Whenever something falls to the ground, he jumps at full speed to check, eat, or play with it. One day, I was frantically typing on my PC. When the mouse slipped from my hand and landed under a table, I tried to retrieve it, but Chettoh beat me to it. Before I realized it, he’d bitten and scratched my left hand so hard it got infected. Although my doctor prescribed antibiotics and an anti-tetanus injection, it took me nearly a month to recover;
They groom excessively. Anecdotal Evidence: Chettoh spends 80% of his time napping. The remaining 20% is divided between grooming (18%) and (2%) watching me while I’m eating or working. As is normal for healthy cats, Chettoh is quite clean. Lately, however, his grooming has turned excessive, so much so that the fur on his rear parts isn’t so thick anymore, and completely missing in some areas;
They lose their appetite. Chettoh has always been a picky eater. There is no way of having him eat cheap food, as he’ll only nibble at top quality kibbles. I’ve always blamed this to his only son status. When there are several cats in a home, they usually gulp whatever they find in their bowls, for fear that a rival might eat it first. Since he’s detected Napo’s scent on myself, however, Chettoh barely touches his food.
(N.B.! Some of the information in the list above has been taken from: Cats – Parade Pets).
How to prevent and temper cat jealousy.
Fig. 3: Wolfram “Wolfie” Chettoh, my cat, in an image inspired by Edward Hopper’s art. Made by the author with Midjourney AI.
Cat jealousy can be hard to prevent, but there are some ways to reduce the chances of triggering it or to deal with it when it happens. Here are some practical tips on how to make a cat feel more secure and happy in its environment:
Determine the trigger of your cat’s jealousy and try to eliminate or minimize it as much as possible. For example, if your cat is jealous of a new pet, introduce it gradually and carefully, making sure your cat doesn’t feel left out or replaced. Give your cat plenty of attention and praise when it behaves well;
Give your cat enough personal space and resources not to share or compete with others. If you own more than one cat, provide them multiple litter boxes, food bowls, water bowls, toys, scratching posts, beds, hiding places, etc. Make sure that each cat has its own designated area where it can feel safe and comfortable;
Teach your cat to accept and tolerate others using positive reinforcement techniques such as treats, toys, play, and affection; IMPORTANT: avoid punishing or scolding your cat for showing signs of jealousy, as this can make it more anxious and resentful. Instead, reward it for being calm and friendly around others;
Spending quality time with your cat daily gives them your undivided attention and love. Play with it, cuddle with it, talk to it, groom it, and make it feel special and appreciated. This will help to strengthen your bond and reduce the cat’s insecurity and jealousy.
Cats are amazing animals that have a lot of intelligence and emotions. They can also get jealous when they feel that their territory or relationship is being threatened by someone or something else. This can cause them to act out in harmful ways. However, there are ways to prevent and temper cat jealousy by understanding the causes, recognizing the signs, and providing the best care and environment for your cat. By doing so, you can ensure that your cat is happy and healthy and that you have a harmonious relationship with it.
In the future, humans will explore the stars. This can happen in a few decades or centuries but is inevitable. The long period is due to the stars being incredibly distant, beyond what we can imagine. Our current technology is not advanced enough to travel through interstellar space. Yet, as we improve our understanding of physics and technology, we will create new propulsion techniques. We will find ways to overcome the barriers that separate us from distant planetary systems.
In this post, I describe five ways to reach Proxima Centauri b, now considered the closest (only about 4.2 ly) habitable planet to Earth. I start with something realistic and then move on to more fantastic possibilities.
Why should we travel to Proxima Centauri b?
Traveling to Proxima Centauri b is extremely important for science, the economy, and human understanding.
Venturing to Proxima Centauri b will help us learn about exoplanets and discover extraterrestrial life. It is located in a region where liquid water probably exists, making it a possible habitat for life. Studying this planet would offer valuable information about its atmosphere, geology, and signs of life. These findings would significantly advance our knowledge of the Universe. They would also enhance our understanding of our existence, helping us answer longstanding questions about life beyond Earth.
Journeying to Proxima Centauri b can lead to groundbreaking technologies, industries, and advancements. Developing efficient propulsion systems, life support technologies, and navigation techniques for interstellar travel can have wide-ranging impacts. These include benefits for transportation, energy generation, and resource management on Earth. Investing in these endeavors can bring economic growth, job opportunities, and technological progress.
Human nature is driven by a strong urge to explore and push boundaries. Traveling to another habitable planet signifies the ultimate achievement, reflecting our curiosity and thirst for knowledge. Interstellar travel symbolizes a future where humanity goes beyond our planet. It unites us and inspires future generations to pursue science and exploration. This effort would have a profound psychological and societal impact, fostering a sense of unity on a global scale.
In summary, traveling to Proxima Centauri b offers several benefits. We could gain new scientific knowledge. It might help us find alien life. The trip could lead to the creation of innovative technologies. Additionally, it would boost our economy and inspire us to explore beyond our limits. This journey would advance our understanding of the universe, unite humanity, and pave the way for interstellar travel.
What Kind of Planet is Proxima Centauri b?
Fig. 1: An imaginary landscape of Proxima Centauri b, made by the author with Midjourney AI.
With a minimum mass of at least 1.07 ME (Earth masses, ME = 5.9722 x 1024 kg) and a radius only slightly larger than that of Earth, Proxima b is deemed an Earth-like planet. This planet is situated within the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri. Nonetheless, it remains uncertain whether or not it possesses an atmosphere. Proxima Centauri is a flare star. It emits intense electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can strip away any atmospheric layer surrounding the planet. Furthermore, Proxima b is expected to be tidally locked with its host star. This means that one side of the world would always face Proxima Centauri. This occurs due to a 1:1 orbit where the rotation period matches the time taken to finish one orbit. The consequences of such tidal locking are still ambiguous, and it is unclear whether habitable conditions can arise. In such a scenario, the planet would experience an extreme climate, with only a part of it being habitable.
Proxima b is not tidally locked if:
Its eccentricity is higher than 0.1 – 0.06 (that is, the orbit is much flatter than a perfect circle); in this case, the planet would probably enter a Mercury-like 3:2 resonance (three rotations around the axis for every two revolutions around the primary star);
The planet isn’t symmetrical (e.g., triaxial). In this case, capture into a non-tidally locked orbit would be possible even with low eccentricity.
A non-tidally locked orbit has disadvantages. For example, the planet’s mantle would experience tidal heating, which leads to more volcanic activity and a possible loss of a magnetic field. Protecting the atmosphere from the stellar wind is challenging without a strong magnetic field.
Proxima Centauri b’s atmosphere has two possible scenarios. It either lost hydrogen and retained oxygen and carbon dioxide, or it formed farther away from its star and still had hydrogen. This distance would have helped preserve its water.
However, red dwarfs are not suitable for supporting life due to various challenges and uncertainties.
Among others:
The stellar wind from Proxima Centauri is more significant than the Sun’s and may remove parts of the planet’s atmosphere;
If a planet is tidally locked to its star, the atmosphere can collapse on its night side;
Proxima b may not always be in the habitable zone due to its eccentric orbit;
Proxima Centauri, a star unlike the Sun, had its habitable zone farther away in the past. If a planet like Proxima Centauri b formed in its current orbit, it could have been too close to the star. Water might not have existed there for up to 180 million years. This led to a runaway greenhouse effect, causing the planet’s water to evaporate into steam and escape into space, akin to Venus.
Still, red dwarfs like Proxima Centauri live for a very long time, much longer than the Sun. This gives life a lot of time to develop.
How to travel to Proxima b
Scientists have proposed five ways to travel to Proxima b. One method is the “generation ship.” This method was one of the first ways to reach the stars discussed in scientific literature. It is a potential choice with our current technology.
(a) Generation Ship:
Fig. 2: A generation ship allows humanity to travel to the nearest habitable planet at sub-light speed. Credits: Midjourney AI.
This idea involves creating a spacecraft that can support many generations of people during a long journey. The ship would travel at subluminal speeds, using nuclear power. It’s hard to know precisely how long it would take for the starship to reach its destination: tens of thousands of years or even more.
With our current technologies, a generation ship is technically possible. Still, it is essential to consider the drawbacks linked to such a venture.
Spending your entire life on a spaceship is challenging for your mental health. You never get to experience life on a planet. Being confined in a limited space can make you feel down. A boring routine contributes to this feeling. Moreover, not interacting with others much can also affect your mood. Also, being incapable of seeing different places can make you feel like you are missing out. Not trying new things makes you feel disconnected from the natural world.
Health concerns are also significant when planning a generation ship. Extended space travel can lead to problems like weakened bones and muscles, vision impairments, and increased radiation exposure. A lack of proper medical facilities and resources onboard makes keeping the crew’s overall health and well-being extremely difficult.
Additionally, the people living on the ship must create their society. They would need to make rules, govern themselves, and develop their way of life. It would be a big challenge to keep everyone happy and treat everyone fairly. There could be problems with people wanting too much power or causing trouble. Thinking about all these things is essential before embarking on a journey like this.
Finally, there are ethical concerns to consider. Is it fair to force future generations into space travel without their consent? Their descendants would have no choice in the matter. They would live and die on the spaceship, missing out on the joys of life on a planet. This raises questions about our responsibility to future generations.
(b) Ion Propulsion:
Fig. 3: A starship using ion propulsion to reach the stars. The author made the image using Midjourney AI.
Ion propulsion utilizes electrically charged particles (ions) to generate thrust. This technology is already used in spacecraft missions, like NASA’s Dawn mission. Ion thrusters offer low acceleration but can sustain continuous and efficient propulsion over a long period. With current capabilities, ion propulsion can reduce travel time to Proxima Centauri to a few thousand years. Still, significant advancements in this technology must occur for it to become a practical choice for interstellar travel.
(c) Anti-matter Propulsion:
Fig.4: An anti-matter-propelled starship approaching an exoplanet. The author made the image using Midjourney AI.
Anti-matter propulsion involves using anti-matter to generate thrust by converting mass into energy. This technology has great potential for faster space travel. Yet, producing, storing, and containing anti-matter is very challenging. At present, only small amounts of anti-matter can be made. If we overcome these challenges, we could reach speeds close to the speed of light. This would allow us to travel to Proxima Centauri in several decades or less.
(d) Travel Through a Wormhole:
Fig.5: A futuristic starship entering a wormhole. Wormholes, or Einstein-Rosen bridges, are hypothetical shortcuts through space-time. The author made the image using Midjourney AI.
Wormholes involve creating tunnels or shortcuts in spacetime that connect distant locations. There is ongoing research in theoretical physics about wormholes. Nonetheless, it is essential to note that there is no definitive consensus on the existence or feasibility of traversable wormholes.
According to conventional theories of general relativity, wormholes would need exotic matter with negative energy density. This type of matter would stabilize the wormholes. Exotic matter has properties contrary to ordinary matter. It has not been observed in nature and is purely speculative. Nevertheless, some theoretical physicists have proposed other models that avoid using exotic matter or colossal energies. One such approach is the concept of “traversable wormholes without exotic matter,” first put forth by Eric Davis in 1997. This model uses a form of matter called “phantom energy.” This is, again, negative energy. Still, it does not violate any physical energy conditions. Phantom energy is a hypothetical concept that arises from quantum field theory and has negative pressure. It remains an area of ongoing theoretical exploration and debate.
If wormholes are discovered and harnessed, they would allow almost instantaneous travel between Proxima Centauri and Earth.
(e) Solar Sail:
Fig.6: A spaceship driven by a solar sail is an intriguing possibility to reach the stars. The author made the image using Midjourney AI.
Solar sails are a fascinating spacecraft propulsion technology that harnesses the power of sunlight to propel a spacecraft through space. They work by utilizing the gentle pressure exerted by photons, or particles of light, emitted by the Sun. These photons can transfer momentum to the surface of large reflective sails, creating a slight but continuous acceleration.
One notable project exploring the potential of solar sails is the Breakthrough Starshot Project. This ambitious undertaking aims to send tiny, gram-scale spacecraft to the nearest star system, Alpha Centauri. The envisioned spacecraft would be equipped with ultra-lightweight sails and propelled by an array of powerful lasers from Earth. These tiny probes use the momentum from the laser beams. They could reach up to 20% of the speed of light. This ability significantly reduces the travel time to another star system.
As a final remark, we report an intriguing speculation by Harvard astrophysicist Avi Loeb. In 2018, he proposed that the peculiar interstellar object named Oumuamua is an alien spacecraft. Oumuamua means “scout” or “messenger” in Hawaiian. He suggested a solar sail propels it.
Nonetheless, this speculation remains highly controversial within the scientific community. The available data on Oumuamua is limited. Scientists have also proposed different natural explanations. These include cometary outgassing or a peculiar shape resulting from its formation. Further studies and observations are necessary to decide its true nature definitively.
In a recent post, I discussed the Silurian Hypothesis, which is the possibility that our human civilization is not the first one on Earth. Sci-fi authors have explored this concept in their works for at least a century.
One of the first was Howard Phillips Lovecraft, the author of the Cthulhu Mythos. As early as 1917, he wrote the story Dagon, where the protagonist escapes the German U-boat that sank his merchant ship. However, the sailor soon finds himself on a strange island that “[…] by some unprecedented volcanic upheaval […] must have been thrown to the surface, exposing regions that for innumerable years had lain hidden […]”.
In the middle of the island is a disturbing artifact, an ancient monolith engraved with occult symbols and figures. This human-amphibian mixture fills the protagonist with an inexplicable terror, which only grows worse when a slithering, sucking monstrosity crawls up from the sea and over the monolith. The sight plunges the unlucky man into madness. As a result, he runs away on a “delirious journey” until he wakes up in a San Francisco hospital, where no one believes him, and he’s left alone with the knowledge of the Thing’s existence and what it implies. A Thing so ancient that its existence dwarfs any human concept of time.
Although Dagon is an excellent introduction to Lovecraft’s obsession with vast, inhuman worlds beyond the limit of our knowledge, some of his later works dive even deeper into the rabbit hole of an unbearably old and malign civilization that predates and will outlast humans and their limited, relatively trivial experiences.
In February 1931, he wrote the sci-fi-horror novella At the Mountains of Madness, later serialized in the early 1936 issues of Astounding Stories.
The story is about an American expedition to Antarctica by geologist William Dyer from the fictional Miskatonic University of Arkham. Lovecraft had long been fascinated with Antarctica, though in the 1930s, the continent was not fully explored. As a result, Lovecraft could set his story in a mountainous chain “higher than the Himalayas” (the so-called Mountains of Madness) without fear of contradiction.
The expedition begins promisingly but ends in tragedy and horror after a sub-expedition led by a colleague of Dyer, the biologist Lake, discovers the frozen remains of monstrous barrel-shaped creatures that cannot be reconciled with the known evolution of this planet. They seem half-animal and half-vegetable, with greater brain capacity and super-human sensitivity. Lake jokingly identifies the strange beings with the Elder Things or Old Ones of the Necronomicon, who are “supposed to have created all Earth life as jest or mistake.”
Fig.1: An Antarctic setting in the style of Nicholas Roerich, H.P. Lovecraft’s favorite painter. Image made by the author with Midjourney AI.
Soon, Lake’s sub-expedition loses radio contact with the main party, apparently because of bad weather. However, when Dyer takes a small group of men in some airplanes to find out whatever happened to Lake and company, they discover a devasted camp and no trace of the specimens of the Old Ones, but for a few damaged ones, which they presume must have been buried by Gedney, the one human they couldn’t identify among the corpses.
Fig.2: Lovecraft had a lifelong interest in Antarctic exploration. Image made by the author with Midjourtney AI.
Dyer and a graduate student, Danforth, investigate the mysterious tragedy further by scaling the immense plateau that makes “Everest out of the running.” To their amazement, they find an enormous stone city, fifty to one hundred miles in extent, likely dating to millions of years before any humans evolved on the planet. The subsequent exploration of some interiors leads Dyer and Danforth to conclude that the Old Ones built the city.
Fig.3: A shoggoth in the city of the Old Ones. Image made by the author with Microsoft Bing AI.
Also, by studying some drawings and carvings on the city walls, the two adventurers discover that the Elder Things came from outer space millions of years ago, establishing themselves in Antarctica and eventually spreading across the entire Earth. This is where the shoggoths – shapeless, fifteen-foot masses of gel-like substance which they controlled using hypnotic suggestion – first become important. Over time, these living robots developed a somewhat conscious brain and will, which led to the Old Ones having to deal with the shoggoths’ frequent rebellion attempts. The Old Ones faced more difficulties when other extraterrestrial races, such as the fungus-like creatures from Yuggoth and the Cthulhu spawn, arrived on Earth. The ensuing territorial wars pushed them back to their original settlement in Antarctica. Ultimately, their extinction became inevitable when they lost the ability to travel through space.
Shortly after, Dyer and Danforth discover the body of Gedney and a dog. They also stumble upon a group of Old Ones without their heads, suggesting they regained consciousness after thawing in Lake’s camp. Dyer observes that Gedney’s body was carefully protected to avoid further harm. From this, it can be inferred that the Old Ones were responsible for the destruction of Lake’s camp and took Gedney as a sample. However, the question remains: who killed the Old Ones?
At that point, Dyer and Danforth hear a disturbing piping sound. Afraid it could be some other Old Ones, they flee in terror, but not before they turn their flashlights upon a fast-approaching thing and find that it is “… a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self-luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and unforming as pustules of greenish light over the tunnel-filling front…”
But the two explorer’s trial is not yet over. As they return to camp, Danforth shrieks in horror: “Teke-li! Teke-li!” He has seen something even worse than the shoggoth who killed the Old Ones, something that unhinges his mind, although he refuses to tell Danforth what it is.
Although initially portrayed as scary creatures, the Old Ones are the main focus of the story “At the Mountains of Madness.” Eventually, they are overpowered by the shoggoths, who are described as “the things that even the scary things fear.” Near the end, the Old Ones stop being scary. This is a common theme in stories about civilizations that existed before our current one. For example, similar themes can be found in the novels A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller Jr (1959) and The Second Sleep by Robert Harris (2019). The Old Ones have a deep connection with humans, representing a perfect society that Lovecraft hopes humanity will someday achieve. However, they are much more advanced than humans in various ways, such as intelligence, perception, and artistic ability. As mentioned earlier, the Old Ones are responsible for creating all life on Earth, including humans. Nevertheless, they are destroyed by the shoggoths, initially created by the Old Ones as slaves. This illustrates Lovecraft’s belief in the inevitable rise and fall of civilizations.
Finally, At the Mountains of Madness introduces what later became a trope of sci-fi and fringe literature: most mythological “gods” were mere extraterrestrial beings, and their followers were mistaken about their true nature. The critical passage occurs in the middle of the novella when Dyer acknowledges that the Old Ones must have built the gigantic city in which he has been wandering:
They were the makers and the enslavers of Earth life, and above all doubt the originals of the fiendish elder myths which things like the Pnakotic Manuscripts and the Necronomicon affrightedly hint about.
